Memory

 =Memory=

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**Definition**
Memory is defined as the ability to store, retain and recall information. Individuals vary in their ability to adequately use their memory. This is generally based on several principles of the storing and retreiving of memory. From an information processing point of view there are 3 main stages: > >
 * 1) Encoding- internalizing the information
 * 1) Storage- permanently embedding the information into memory
 * 1) Retreival/Recall- ability to recover previously stored information



How memory works
There are a variety of brain areas that are responsible for memory. The hippocampus, the amygdala and the mammillary bodies are all believed to be responsible for different areas of memory. Although the specific role of each area is yet to be clarified; the hippocampus is believed to be in charge of spatial and declarative learning. Consequently, even though specific areas remain ambiguous in thier roles, certain actions are justified in the working of memory. Changes in neuronal synapses are atributed to both memory and learning. Other concepts about memory iterate that memory is not a function of the brain but a function of neurological structures.



**Working Memory**
Working memory is also known as Short Term Memory(STM). For people, short term memory can only store infromation for 30 seconds before it starts to decay (Urbzsat 2006). However, people can remember more than 30 seconds by performing rehearsal (which is the process of repeating information in STM). George Miller also introduced the idea of the "Magic Number Seven", which is the idea that we can only remember 7-2 or 7+2 units of information in STM. The working memory is also made up of 3 linked components which are:

- Central executive – involved in decision making, planning, multitasking etc. - Articulatory loop – limited in capacity and duration and is involved in remembering unfamiliar strings of numbers or words. - Visuo-spatial sketchpad – like the articulatory loop it is limited in capacity and duration, it is involved with visual and spatial information (Benyon, Turner et al 2005). - Chunking is a method of short term memory. A strategy for making more efficient use of short-term memory by recoding information



**Long-Term Memory**
(LTM) is theoretically unlimited in capacity (Weitin & McCann 2006). It is usually semantic which means that encoding occurs through the meanings associated with the item to be stored. However, there are other forms of encoding through our five senses as well. For example, olfactory (smell) and gustatory (taste) encoding allows us to remember what our favourite foods smell and taste like without actually eating it. In addition to semantic memory, other kinds of memory included with long-term memory are episodic or autobiographical (memory of our personal history) and procedural (e.g. How to knit or drive a car).

**Types of Long Term Memory:**
(CCT202 Lecture Notes)
 * **Procedural** - Memories of "how to" skills
 * **Declarative** - Memories of facts and events
 * **Semantic** - General world knowledge
 * **Episodic** - Memories of a particular event



**How do we remember?**
Remembering involves retrieving information (retrieve and recall) and storing information to memory (store and encode). Rehearsing, which is the repetition of the string of words, is the most typical way to remember simple things (does not exceed the capacity of our working memory). To enhance the capacity of working memory, one can organize material into meaningful groups which is a process known as chunking. To retrieve stored information, two processes occur: recall and recognition. To recall information, individuals actively sort through their memories for the specific piece of information. Recognition is the process where the individual decides whether or not the information matches what we have in out memory (Benyon & Turner et al 2006).

[[image:memory-formation-fig.gif]]
 =**Methods in Improving Memory**= There are numerous techniques that can be used to improve memory. However, different techniques work better for certain people. It really depends on the person which technique will be successful. There are mainly two types of Mnemonics: Visual and Verbal. The following are just a few methods in improving memory:

**Visual Mnemonics**

 * Method of Loci - this method involves the link of a familiar place with the items to be remembered. You would create a mental image of the familiar place and place each item in a room. Then when you wish to recall the items, you would take a mental walk through the place and 'see' the items you need to remember (Urbszat 2006).

Link Method -** this method involves associations between the items to be remembered (Mind Tools Ltd 1998). For example if you wish to remember the list: Computer, sun, apple tree, and bicycle. You could use the following associations: - The COMPUTER can find pictures of SUNsets. - The sun helps with the growth of APPLE TREEs. - Apple trees can make BICYCLE obstacle courses.


 * Story Method -** this method is similar to the Link Method. The only difference is the way in which the associations are created. The items would be remembered would be through a story (Mind Tools Ltd 1998). For example if you wish to remember the list: Computer, designer, people, chair and jar. You could use the following story: Mike used the COMPUTER to search for DESIGNER CHAIRs and PEOPLE who make JARs.

Verbal Mnemonics

 * Acronyms - this method involves the use of the first letter(s) of the major parts of a compound term to create words ([|Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary] 2006). For example, ROY G BIV can help with remember the colours of the visible spectrum - Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indego, and Violet.

Acrostics - this method is similar to the method of acronyms. The difference is that you use the first letter of the words to be remembered to create a sentence instead of just a word. For example, to remember the note positions in music, many people use the acrostic: Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge for the notes E, G, B, D and F.

Rhymes -** this method involves the "repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds in two or more different words" ([|Wikipedia] 2006). Things that rymes are usually catchy and interesting which makes it easeir to remember. For example, to remember a spelling rule, many people use the following rhyme: "i" before "e" except after "c"


 * **

What causes us to Forget?
A big part of memory is also why we forget. Two parts of how to get to the information stored in our brains is through accessibility and availability. The difference between the two are as follows: accessibility is trying to get to the information and availability is finding out if the information was even stored in our brains. According to Benyan et al (2005), the availability of information is part of Working Memory and accessibility is a part of Longterm Memory (LM). A function that causes forgetting in working memory is decay. Decay is caused by memory that has not been retreived in time before more information has been taken in by the brain. Since the working memory only has 30 seconds of lifespan in storing information, if something is not chunked or referred to within that timeframe, it is lost, or decayed.

Forgetting from long-term memory is caused by factors of the interference theory (Benyan et al, 2005). The interference theory consists of Retroactive Interference (RI) and Proactive Intereference (PI) (Benyan et al, 2005). The retroactive interference is when something that is learnt in present interferes with something that is learnt in the past. For example, if someone used to use Mac 1 week ago to copy and paste items. The "Apple + C" buttons will be pressed to copy the items using hotkey command. Then if that person learns to use Windows a week after to copy an item, the hotkeys are "Cntrl + C". Now, if there were to go back to using Mac, they'd get confused as to why the "Control" button isn't working. That is because, the new thing they learnt interfered with what they had known. Proactive Interference is the opposite of retroactive, when something in the past interferes with something that is learnt in the future. For example, people who used Adobe Photoshop 6 are used to the layout and the placement of the icons. If they were to then upgrade to Photoshop 9, the layout is similar but not the same and some extra icons were added and some features were taken out. Thus, the algorithm used the previous version is carried over with the idea that it will be the same with the newer version, therefore interfering with the newer version.



**References**
Types of Long Term Memory - CCT202 lecture notes

Benyon, David, Phil Turner, and Susan Turner. __Designing Interactive Systems: People, Activities, Contexts, Technologies__. Pearson Educated Limited, 2005. 353-366.

Urbszat, Dax. "Human Memory." Psychology 100. University of Toronto at Mississauga. Mississauga, 13 November 2006.

Mikhailov, Serge. (2006). "Speed Mnemonic Game." Retrieved on December 8 2006 from http://www.ababasoft.com/mnemonic/tech05.htm

Mind Tools Ltd. (1998) "Helping you to think your way to an excellent life!**"** **Retrieved on December 8 2006 from**[| http://www.psywww.com/mtsite/link.html]

Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. (2006) "Acronym" Retrieved on December 8 2006 from http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/acronyms

Weiten W. & McCann. (2006). Psychology: Themes and Variations. Belmont Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Wikipedia. (2006) "Rhyme" Retrieved on December 8 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyme

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